Jorth P, Turner KH, Gumus P, et al. Forensic Sci Int Genet. The use of the acid phosphatase test in searching for seminal stains. Electrophoresis. Old JB, Schweers BA, Boonlayangoor PW, Reich KA. Int J Leg Med. Forensic body fluid identification: the Raman spectroscopic signature of saliva. Forensic Sci Int. Int J Leg Med. 2012;14:160–162. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2013;28:25–29. 2013;7:176–179. Anderson SE, Hobbs GR, Bishop CP. Both authors were responsible for drafting, revising, and approving the article and are equally accountable for its content. MAFS Newslett. The use of micro-spectrophotometry to characterise microscopic amounts of blood. 2009;2:80. The most frequently proposed RNA markers for blood are generally divided into proteins associated with the erythrocyte membrane (such as ankyrin 1, glycophorin A, and beta-spectrin) and proteins associated with hemoglobin and the heme biosynthesis pathway (such as alpha- and beta- hemoglobin, porphobilinogen deaminase, and amino-levulinate synthase 2). The above percentage of manuscripts have been rejected in the last 12 months. Amylase levels in semen and saliva stains. Specific and sensitive mRNA biomarkers for the identification of skin in “tough” DNA evidence. An mRNA and DNA co-isolation method for forensic casework samples. 2013;58:1141–1148. 2010;124:523–536. Semenogelin is a substrate for PSA/P30/kallikrein 3 which itself has been used by some. open access to scientific and medical research. For deg som bor og jobber på Jessheim. The use of Polilight in the detection of seminal fluid, saliva and bloodstains and comparison with conventional chemical based screening tests. 2014;10:40–48. Auvdel ML. Quinones I, Sheppard D, Harbison SA, Elliot DA. A drawback is the current restriction on the dyes that can be used, limiting the number of markers that can be targeted in a single reaction. 2009;188:1–17. Raman spectroscopic signature of vaginal fluid and its potential application in forensic body fluid identification. J Forensic Sci. 2010;11:210. Cheap essay writing sercice. The use of bacteria for the identification of vaginal secretions. Akutsu T, Kitayama T, Watanabe K, Sakurada K. Comparison of automated and manual purification of total RNA for mRNA-based identification of body fluids. 2003;36:173–183. Sikirzhytskaya A, Sikirzhytski V, McLaughlin G, Lednev IK. Part II covers presumptive tests and the law, and relies on examples of cases where presumptive and confirmative testing have either been misapplied or misunderstood. Kotowski TM, Grieve MC. This review describes the current status of body fluid identification, including the evaluation of newly available tools demonstrating their potential applications to forensic casework. Professional academic writers. Frumkin D, Wasserstrom A, Budowle B, Davidson A. DNA methylation based forensic tissue identification. 1957;47:597–600. 2013;127:35–43. Sikirzhytskaya A, Sikirzhytski V, Lednev, IK. A number of markers have emerged as suitable for further evaluation. •  Top, © Copyright 2021  •  Dove Press Ltd   2014;128:33–41. The markers DACT1 and USP49 showed spermatozoa (not seminal fluid) specific hypomethylation and were considered suitable for identifying spermatozoa.120 PFN3 appeared to be a reliable marker for vaginal fluid showing significant hypomethlyation in these samples. Cox M. A study of the sensitivity and specificity of four presumptive tests for blood. Cover Letter for Jobs 2012;33:1736–1745. Specific micro-RNA signatures for the detection of saliva and blood in forensic body-fluid identification. 1975;57:417–428. J Forensic Sci. 2013;127:891–900. Boyd S, Bertino MF, Ye D, White LS, Seashols SJ. 2014;13:217–223. 2009;183:20–23. 1999;44:1232–1236. Volume 2016:6 Pages 11—23, Editor who approved publication: Quantitative real time RT PCR – a perspective. Determination of an effective housekeeping gene for the quantification of mRNA for forensic applications. J Forensic Sci. Historically, methods relied on (bio) chemical-based tests, many of which lacked specificity. When mixed with liquid blood, the characteristic fluorescence emission spectra were quenched or altered in a concentration-dependent manner. Nussbaumer C, Gharehbaghi-Schnell E, Korschineck I. Messenger RNA profiling: a novel method for body fluid identification by real time PCR. Lugol’s staining of the glycogen-containing squamous epithelial cells of the vaginal wall, the microscopic identification of endometrial cells, and the detection of lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes 4 and 5 are now considered not to be specific for vaginal cells.34,35, Immunochromatography tests for D-dimer, a soluble fibrin degradation product detected clinically for the diagnosis of thrombosis, is recognized as a possible test for menstrual blood.36,37 An alternative approach using ELISA targeting MMP14, estrogen receptor α, and fibrinogen was used to differentiate between peripheral and menstrual blood, although no other body fluids were tested for cross reactivity.38, Localization of urine stains is difficult as they are typically diffuse, pale, and spread over large areas. Forensic Sci Int Genet. Presumptive tests are typically based on the detection of urea, urease, or uric acid. mRNA is now widely recognized to be stable in body fluids dried on a variety of surfaces and can be recovered in sufficient quality and quantity for analysis from many sample types.47–52 An advantage of mRNA profiling is that RNA recovery from stains can be integrated into a typical DNA profiling workflow with a number of different RNA extraction methods having been described.52–56 Comparison of different commercial RNA extraction methods showed different success rates in terms of yields and DNA and RNA profiling, with no one option being better than the other; this finding has been supported by collaborative trials.56–59, The ability to identify an mRNA transcript of interest is related to the abundance of transcript and stability of each transcript in the cell with alternative markers for the same body fluid exhibiting different sensitivities.53,57–63 mRNA profiling is comparable in sensitivity to presumptive tests where such comparisons have been made.60, RNA profiling would be improved by the development of a reliable method for mRNA quantification; excess template results in target overamplification and increased risk of “nonspecific artifacts”60 Current options only measure the total nucleic acid or RNA and are not human specific; measurements are usually done by using techniques such as UV spectrometry, fluorometric assays using intercalating dyes, the Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer, Nanodrop ND spectrophotometer, and Quant-iT™ RiboGreen® RNA kit.49,56,61,64, Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is a sensitive method capable of detecting low-abundance mRNA obtained from limited samples.50,53,61,65–68 The most widely implemented approach in casework is end-point RT-PCR coupled with capillary electrophoresis, enabling the detection of several body fluids simultaneously and thus minimizing sample use and contextual effects. Int J Leg Med. Genomics Inform. An JH, Choi A, Shin KJ, Yang WI, Lee HY. 2012;486:207–214. Environmental factors can affect the antigen–antibody interaction leading to false positives or negatives, and all of these tests are affected by the high-dose hook effect. Visser M, Zubakov D, Ballantyne KA, Kayser M. mRNA based skin identification for forensic applications. Forensic Sci Int Genet. Forensic Sci Int Genet. Some of these proteins (eg, glycophorin A) are used in the aforementioned immunological tests. 1978;62:57–62. Body fluid identification is an important aspect in criminal investigations and as advancements in technology have improved, the ability to detect and identify body fluids has also improved. Kind SS. Two-dimensional, high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry (MS), and quadrupole time-of-flight MS have each been used to produce proteomic profiles characteristic of each of six key forensic body fluids (blood, menstrual blood, saliva, semen, vaginal material, and skin) and identify new candidates such as osteopontin and uromodulin to detect urine.42 Other markers such as statherin (saliva) and semenogelin 1 and 2 (semen) are used for mRNA testing (see the following section). A novel fluorescence-based method in forensic science for the detection of blood in situ. Kuczynski J, Costello EK, Nemergut DR, et al. Grabmuller M, Madea B, Courts C. Comparative evaluation of different extraction and quantification methods for forensic RNA analysis. 2012;57:489–499. 2014;23:1186–1201. 2014;5:e01012–e01014. 2015;14:1–10. 2015;16:195–202. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy is routinely used in forensic chemistry to analyze drugs, chemicals, fibers, and paints with unique and characteristic spectral signatures determined for each sample. Dove Medical Press is a member of the OAI. Int J Leg Med. Other presumptive tests produce light, as … Sourcebook in Forensic Serology, Immunology and Biochemistry. J Forensic Sci. 2014;35:3069–3078. Haas C, Hanson E, Banemann R, et al. In a different approach, the Illumina Human Methylation bead array system was used to screen over 450,000 CpG sites using DNA from samples of blood, saliva, and vaginal fluid to identify possible markers.119 Pyrosequencing was then used to evaluate candidate markers further in samples of blood, saliva, and vaginal fluid, with successful markers showing high specificity and sensitivity for their target body fluids. Mature miRNAs are 18–25 nucleotides in length and are involved in the regulation of mRNA translation and stability.99 Currently, the miRNA database has ~29,000 entries of which 1,881 are annotated as human.100 miRNAs have been shown to be exceptionally stable postmortem and can be successfully isolated from forensically relevant samples.101–108 Some are human specific. An essay is a short piece of writing, and it needs to have the correct level of quality matching your readers’ interests. 1994;34:89–93. Bowden A, Fleming RI, Harbison SA. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice; 1983. 2014;8:203–212. Stombaugh PM, Kearney JJ. Int J Leg Med. 2010;107:6477–6481. Historically, tests relied on the use of chemical or enzymatic assays that were often presumptive in nature and generally limited in specificity or sensitivity, whereas confirmatory tests relied on microscopic or immunological tests. Casey DG, Price J. J Forensic Sci. Anal Chim Acta. These markers are also specific showing little, if any, cross reactivity.50,61,62,64,66,69,70,72,78,81, Of the four classes of peptides that are secreted by the salivary glands into saliva, histatin and statherin are favored as RNA markers for saliva. If you need professional help with completing any kind of homework, Online Essay Help is the right place to get it. These tests are not used to localize areas of staining or in a sequential way, and in each of these tests, a portion of the sample is removed and solubilized prior to testing. Forensic Sci Int Genet. Forensic Sci Int. 2014;54:192–198. ELISA and immunochromatographic tests rely on the discovery and characterization of specific markers. J Forensic Leg Med. 2008;53:1117–1122. This lets us find the most appropriate writer for any type of assignment. Housekeeping genes are no exception and there is general agreement that their transcript abundance can vary between people and between fluids.61, 70,79,80 For example, buccal cells and semen exhibit very low transcript abundance of housekeeping genes compared to the body fluid–specific genes, and it is likely that there is no one suitable housekeeping gene for all body fluids. Since the functions of these cell types are similar (protection and secretion), finding measurable differences between them is challenging, particularly in nonkeratinized buccal and vaginal cells. Setzer M, Juusola J, Ballantyne J. Balamurugan K, Bombardi R, Duncan G, McCord B. A multiplex (m)RNA profiling system for the forensic identification of body fluids and contact traces. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2012;6:419–423. ELISA-based assays have been developed for the detection of sweat-specific protein G-81 and dermicidin but have not been widely adopted.40,41. Forensic Sci Int. A comparison of the presumptive luminol test for blood with four non-chemiluminescent forensic techniques. Vandenberg N, van Oorshot RAH. Microarray screening and qRT-PCR evaluation of microRNA markers for forensic body fluid identification. miRBase. Forensic Sci Int. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2013;435:120–122. Many rely on the properties of enzymes in body fluids and many of the reagents are destructive to the samples and/or inhibit downstream processes.7, Nonvisible stains or stains on dark surfaces are difficult to locate in situ and have been visualized with light sources that use the autofluorescence shown by some body fluids.8,9 Variability between body fluids and different surfaces can affect the usefulness of these methods, and exposure to such light sources may cause damage to the DNA in the stain. 2008;105:17994–17999. Immunohistochemistry has been evaluated as a way to identify epidermal cells and distinguish the vaginal and oral mucosal epithelial cells using cytokeratins.90,111 Cells of mucosal origin could be distinguished from epidermal cells when compared directly, although low-level expression of each cytokeratin was found in the other cell type. J Forensic Sci. D-dimer assays for the identification of menstrual blood. Bustin SA. Fleming RI, Harbison SA. Vaginal microbial flora analysis by next generation sequencing and microarrays: can microbes indicate vaginal origin in a forensic context? A new approach to the investigation of sexual offenses-cytoskeleton analysis reveals the origin of cells found on forensic swabs. For example, the sequence of multiple fragments of each protein in a sample can be determined and the combination of proteins characteristic of each fluid can be identified, yielding a sensitive and specific test. Comprehensive reports of their performance and specificity are available.2,6,7 These chemical tests are not human specific and in general are applied sequentially when a mixed body fluid may be present. Willott GM. Usually one species predominates; for example, L. crispatus is prevalent among women in North America, Europe, and Asia.132 Not all women have all species of lactobacilli all of the time, and levels of lactobacilli are reduced in women under 20 years and are unlikely to be present in prepubescent children.133, Using either amplification of the nonconserved regions of the Streptococcus-specific glucosyltransferase genes or amplification of ribosomal RNA genes, detection of oral Streptococcus species was successful in forensic-like samples proposing the identification of these bacteria as useful in the identification of saliva.134,135 This was extended to the analysis of oral microbial communities in expirated blood on a variety of surfaces for extended periods of time after deposition.136, Successful and specific microbial signatures have been obtained from the microbial communities of vagina, oral cavity, and feces using multiplex real-time PCR amplification and primers specific for L. crispatus and L. gasseri (vagina), Streptococcus salivarius and Streptococcus mutans (saliva), and Enterococcus species (feces).87,89 The microbial community of feces is also unique with Bacteroides vulgaris, B. uniformis, and B. thetaoitaomicron being predominant in the fecal samples.137, A multiplex method – which involves combining epigenetic markers for semen and vaginal fluid, and bacterial markers for saliva and vaginal bacteria – has been successfully used to distinguish between blood, semen, saliva, vaginal secretions, and menstrual blood.138, Bacterial communities are also known to be present on the skin with as many as 150 unique species-level bacterial phylotypes being identified in a pyrosequencing study of 16S ribosomal RNA genes. Efficacy of several candidate protein biomarkers in the differentiation of vaginal from buccal epithelial cells. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802719-6.00008-X. 2008;2:363–371. Copyright 2017 Informa PLC. 2015;14:11–17. Science 2001;294:853–858. Danaher P, White RL, Hanson EK, Ballantyne J. Facile semi-automated forensic body fluid identification by multiplex solution hybridization of NanoString® barcode probes to specific mRNA targets. 2013;11:277–281. The chapter begins by recounting Lindy Chamberlain's three-decade struggle to prove that she was not guilty of slitting her baby's throat in the family car. Something about her appeals to him, and he finds himself staring at her repeatedly for no good reason. Tobe SS, Watson N, Daeid NN. 2014;35:3079–3086. Sikirzhytski V, Sikirzhytskaya A, Lednev IK. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. Forensic Sci Int Genet. Lynch L, Gamblin A, Vintiner S, Simons J. STR profiling of epithelial cells identified by X/Y FISH labelling and laser microdissection using standard and elevated PCR conditions. Anal Biochem. J Forensic Sci. Anal Biochem. 2008;2:243–247. Forensic Sci Int Genet. Huse SM, Ye Y, Zhou Y, Fodor AA. 2010;56:186–193. Sikirzhytskaya A, Sikirzhytski V, Lednev IK. 2007;52:102–109. Sauer E, Babion I, Madea B, Courts C. An evidence based strategy for normalization of quantitative PCR data from miRNA expression analysis in forensic organ tissue identification. Meer D, Uchimoto ML, Williams G. Simultaneous analysis of micro RNA and DNA for determining the body fluid origin of DNA profiles. Body fluid identification using immunochromatographic- and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based methods offers a high degree of specificity and sensitivity.12–14 These tests identify the presence of the relevant antigen rather than the activity of the antigen. Malkov VA, Serikawa KA, Balantac N, et al. This can be caused by a number of factors including differing secondary structure of RNA transcripts, stochastic variation when dealing with very small samples, and RNA quality and inhibition. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is an alternative approach to mass spectrometry but may not be easily accessible to forensic laboratories.157 The unique metabolite composition of each body fluid yielded a signature spectrum that combined with statistical analysis was used to identify each body fluid. A DNA methylation assay, Nucleix DSI-Semen™, is now available and uses methylation-sensitive/dependent enzyme restriction followed by amplification with locus-specific markers to identify semen.124 Peak heights of the amplified markers, including controls indicating complete digestion and amplification, are used to determine if the results indicate the presence of semen, not semen, or are inconclusive. Brumbaugh CD, Kim HJ, Giovacchini M, Pourmand N. NanoStriDE: normalization and differential expression analysis of NanoString nCounter data. The first study used 18 body fluid-specific mRNAs and two endogenous controls. Total RNA was used in the analysis and the counts were normalized against the housekeeping gene GAPDH. Get your assignment help services from professionals. 2005;152:1–12. Forensic Sci Int Genet Suppl Ser. 2015;16:139–147. 2011;5:449–458. Magn Reson Chem. Sakurada K, Akutsu T, Fukushima H, Watanabe K, Yoshino M. Detection of dermicidin for sweat identification by real time RT PCR and ELISA. Mass spectrometry DNA sequencing. Benschop CC, Quaak FC, Boon ME, Sijen T, Kuiper I. 2010;4:311–315. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2013;4:e87–e88. Lin MH, Jones DF, Fleming R. Transcriptomic analysis of degraded forensic body fluids. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution - Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License. Besøksadresse: Lars Hilles gate 30 / Odd Frantzens plass 5, 5008 Bergen Postadresse: Bergens Tidende AS . Laboratory-based methods developed recently have centered on molecular biology techniques such as mRNA and miRNA profiling and epigenetic approaches. Forensic Sci Int Genet. Comparative analysis of luminol formulations. Forensic Sci Int. New approaches combining epigenetic analysis and MPS for body fluid identification are appearing in the literature and may provide a fresh impetus for discovering stable markers that do not change with influences such as age and environment.126, Microbes, bacteria, fungi, and viruses are well established in and on the human body, and the human microbiome is a focus of much study.127 The microbial communities of the mouth and nose, feces, skin, and vagina are some examples. An improved test for the detection of salivary-amylase in stains. 2015;249:255–265. Several features of The vaginal microbiome in health and disease. Su CW, Li CY, Lee JCI, et al. Genome wide methylation profiling and a multiplex construction for the identification of body fluids using epigenetic markers. 2012;6:274–276. Dove Medical Press is part of Taylor & Francis Group, the Academic Publishing Division of Informa PLC Who We Are. White BA, Creedon DJ, Nelson KE, Wilson BA. Although DNA is frequently recovered and profiled from areas of clothing likely to contain sweat, little research has been undertaken. Juusola J, Ballantyne J. Multiplex mRNA profiling for the identification of body fluids. LaRue BL, King JL, Budowle B. J Forensic Res. Hanson EK, Ballantyne J. Kipps AE, Whitehead PN. 2014;47:37–45. 2006;51:361–370. Park SM, Park SY, Kim JH, et al. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2006;51:1138–1143. Pusch W, Wurmbach JH, Thiele H, Kostrzewa M. MALDI TOF mass spectrometry based SNP genotyping. Nat Biotechnol. Arch Oral Biol. • Web Design by Adhesion. 1974;14:341–344. RNA/DNA co-analysis from human menstrual blood and vaginal secretion stains: results of a fourth and fifth collaborative EDNAP exercise. Forensic Sci Int. Cossu C, Germann U, Kratzer A, Baer W, Haas C. How specific are the vaginal secretion mRNA markers HBD1 and MUC4. Soukos NS, Crowley K, Bamberg MP, et al. All rights reserved. 2003;5:220–227. postboks 7240. 2013;7:499–507. Waltham, MA: Academic Press; 2012. Simich JP, Morris SL, Klick RL, et al. MBio. Forensic Sci Int Genet. Park JL, Park SM, Kim JH, et al. Factors affecting the use of lactate dehydrogenase as a means of bloodstain differentiation. Old JB, Schweers BA, Boonlayangoor PW, Reich KA. Shivaay knows he is fond of her. Sci Justice. In search of blood-detection of minute particles using spectroscopic methods. J Forensic Sci. Many of the early tests were incompatible with DNA profiling and consumed already limited biological material.